Property Rights (II): Time to Reclaim Our Freedom

Foundations for thriving cooperative "Ownership Economies"

So, property rights—or, you know, responsible freedoms over something—super important, right? They’re kind of the foundation for everything exchanged in any monetary economy. Property rights are like the backstage crew of the economy; they don’t get the spotlight, but without them, the whole show falls apart. And if you really dig in, the unsung hero here is the property registry. Sounds boring, right? But bear with me. Control the registry, control the world. Or at least the representation and flow of assets, which, let’s face it, is pretty much everything!

But before we continue...

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Historically, people realized pretty quickly that they had to keep track of who owned what around valuable assets. Mesopotamians started scratching out ownership records on cuneiform tablets around 3,000 BC, because even in ancient times, you needed a receipt. The Romans took it up a notch with their “res mancipi” system¹, which sounds fancy but basically means, “Yes, you can sell this thing, but only if we say so”. They made it official, legal, and bureaucratic—classic Rome.

Then the Middle Ages roll around, and Europe decides to take a step back by relying on oral traditions to figure out who owns what (spoiler: it was confusing). But as economies got more complex, they needed something more reliable than word-of-mouth and local custom, and the need for reliable registration of diverse assets grew. Enter the Domesday Book in 1086: England's ambitious attempt at a nationwide property audit. Why the sudden interest in cataloging every piece of land? Taxes, naturally. If you're the king, you need to know who owns what to fill the royal coffers, and if disputes arise, you've got a hefty book to settle the arguments.

By the Renaissance, Europe began developing cadastral systems—detailed land surveys for taxation and legal purposes. By the 1600s, the Dutch founded the Amsterdam Stock Exchange in 1602, primarily to trade shares of the Dutch East India Company. This wasn't just about spices and ships; it was about creating a reliable system to register financial contracts and shares—a significant leap toward modern asset registration, setting the stage for capital markets as we know them.

Then the Industrial Revolution hits, and suddenly we need a way to manage not just land and financial contracts but everything—factories, machines, inventions of any type, you name it. That’s when intellectual property laws start to take shape in the 19th century, giving inventors rights over their creations—think patents and trademarks becoming legal tools. And in 1858, Australia's Torrens Title system takes property registration to the next level. Tired of sifting through conflicting scattered deeds dating back to British colonial times, they thought, “Why not have one clear, government-guaranteed land title for each property”. A revolutionary idea that made property transactions as straightforward as possible—and, as you know, heavily centralized by the government.

By the 20th century, things really start heating up. Intellectual property becomes a cornerstone of the modern economy, and the advent of computers begins to transform how we keep records. But first, in 1952, the U.S. introduces the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) to harmonize commercial transactions across states—because who wants a legal maze every time you do business across state lines? Then, in the 1960s and '70s, electronic data processing starts creeping into record-keeping systems. The Depository Trust Company (DTC) is established in 1973 to immobilize physical stock certificates and facilitate electronic settlements. Shocking revelation: electronic records are faster and less prone to error than shuffling paper certificates. It was the beginning of the digitization of financial assets.

Meanwhile, countries like Estonia leap into the future by embracing digital governance. In the mid-1990s, Estonia starts digitizing its land registries as part of its e-government initiative. They figured, “Why not put all our property records online?” A bold move that showcased the potential of technology in public administration and set a precedent for digital record-keeping.

But then came the biggest counterbalance to this growing trend of increasingly digital and efficient centralization over record-keeping systems: enter Bitcoin in 2009. This isn't just another step in digitization; it's a paradigm shift. Bitcoin introduces the blockchain—a distributed ledger that allows for secure, transparent transactions without a central authority. No more middlemen, no gatekeepers. It's a system where your records are immutable, and control is truly in the hands of the user.

If Bitcoin is a network designed to trustlessly secure the record of a fundamental asset—the first inherently scarce, neutral base money in history—then the world also needs a network to decentralize record-keeping for everything else: identity, assets, contracts, you name it. This opens the door to a universal, decentralized registry where control shifts away from governments and corporations and into the hands of individuals and corporations themselves.

So why does this matter? Well, we're on the cusp of redefining ownership itself. Distributed ledgers like blockchain, by tokenizing ownership rights over assets, provide a way to achieve true possession without relying on centralized recordkeeping. No manipulation, no censorship, no third-party interference with the rights you can hold over your identity (yourself), money, and your property.
And that could change... well, pretty much everything!

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Diagnose today to see where we’re headed

If you want to understand where the future is headed, start by looking at the problems we’ve been dragging along from the past. When it comes to property rights, history is basically one long tale of how control over stuff—and who gets to say who owns that stuff—has been increasingly concentrated in fewer hands. Whether those hands belong to the government or private companies, the lesson is clear:

Control the records, and you control the property, the rights, and everything they stand for. 

Back in the day, we kept records on paper, in dusty physical ledgers, filed away in various places. Then the internet came along and gave us the power to put all those records into digital form. See why we are now more efficient? This shift started with the ARPANET in the 1960s, the internet protocols that followed, and boom—the 1990s and 2000s saw the explosion of the World Wide Web, which revolutionized how we keep track of everything. Suddenly, your real estate records, your stock holdings, your tax filings—all of it lives on some digital database. The efficiencies were mind-blowing! But here’s the thing: the same tech that made all this possible also centralized power in a way that would make medieval kings jealous.

In the pre-digital era, you had gatekeepers—like a town clerk with a dusty ledger, generally paper-based. Annoying, but distributed power. Now, digital databases mean a handful of players control everything. And I’m not just talking about your identity or house deed. I’m talking about all your private data and media files—your conversations, your photos, your videos—everything, generated in real time. Everything’s centralized and digitized. Whoever controls the servers controls the data—and with it, the rights to the property that data represents. If it exists, it can be digitized, and if it’s digitized, someone can easily control or manipulate it at will. The more power that’s concentrated, the scarier it becomes. This isn’t some abstract risk; it’s already happening if you look at the systems and institutions around you.

So, here’s where the shiny digital revolution gets a little tarnished. It’s not just about efficiency anymore. It’s about control—absolute control of data and its programmability. Nearly every imaginable property right is now at stake. When that much power is concentrated, bad things start to happen: corruption, political backroom deals, blackmail, and entire communities becoming more polarized—fueled by lucrative business models that exploit and monetize our assets and social graphs linked to our identity data. Who benefits? Spoiler: not us.

But here’s the thing that should really get you thinking: How much control do you actually have over your life if someone else controls all the rights tied to your property and can manipulate them?

1. Your identity, everything that officially defines you, is controlled by the state where you reside. Add your social identity and its data graph, and that’s firmly in the grip of Big Tech.

2. Money? That cash in your bank? You don’t control it unless it's physical cash in your hand.

3. Your real assets property, like your house or real estate? That’s also registered and controlled by the State.

4. Financial assets? Controlled by banks or their financial firms folks, not you.

5. Your private data—every like, post, conversation, video call, even your photos or other media—is a highly lucrative goldmine for BigTech monopolies to control.

6. Even your day-to-day purchases, from groceries to electronics, aren’t truly yours. Lose a receipt and good luck proving ownership.

And more importantly, how do you get it back? Because if we don’t start reclaiming some of this control, others will be more than happy to take it for themselves, and that’s a one-way ticket to a world where freedom is just another line item in a spreadsheet.

If we don't reclaim self-sovereign control over all our ownership rights for ourselves and the order within our communities, others will take control of them—and our freedom in the process. 

So, let’s dig into the real cases of abuse—because trust me, there are plenty—and figure out how we can take back some agency over our property ownership, our rights, and, you know, our lives. It’s time to stop letting a handful of centralized entities, whether public or private, control everything for us. We need to build systems that give individuals and communities true ownership over their rights attributed to a property (see framework), real agency, and the ability to delegate those rights to people who actually have our trust and legitimacy.

Abuses and misuse of identity rights

Let’s talk about identity, the most important form of property—your self-ownership, from which all other property rights stem. Today, most of the control over that data is largely monopolized by State institutions. Not in the philosophical “Who am I?” sense, but as a piece of property. Your identity—whether it’s your personal data, with attached properties, or the identity of your organization—is something that, more often than not, gets bought without our consent, sold, stolen, or just flat-out misused. And as you might guess, people are really good at exploiting this stuff.

Take India’s Aadhaar system, for example. Now, in theory, a national identity system for over a billion people sounds like a security masterpiece. But in practice? Well, in October 2023, hackers made off with the personal data of 815 million citizens² —names, fathers' names, phone numbers, passport numbers, Aadhaar numbers, ages, genders, addresses etc. Imagine your entire existence (the essence of your identity data) floating around on the dark web, listed for $80,000 like some kind of cut-rate Black Friday deal by the hacker "pwn0001". All thanks to a breach that sourced data from the Indian Council of Medical Research's COVID-19 records and made millions of people vulnerable to identity theft. And when you can’t control your own identity, you lose more than just privacy.

Or maybe you’d prefer an example from a private credit reporting agency. Flashback to 2017, when Equifax³, one of the United States' major credit bureaus, found itself in the crosshairs of cybercriminals. That breach exposed the personal information of about 147 million Americans—names, social security numbers, birth dates, addresses, and even some driver's license details. No joke!

But let’s zoom out a little. One of the most valuable assets of the 21st century is digital data ownership, related to our private social activity tied to our identity. And guess what? Governments and banks didn’t see it coming how important controlling it would be—this time, they lost big. Big Tech data monopolies swooped in and captured it! Every time you use a social network or browse the web, you're both the customer and the product. You hand over your data to these platforms: your name, location, or even what you had for breakfast, which they fence off from competitors, turning you into the product. But they also gather implicit data to feed your product from your browsing habits, plus network data from your social connections, likes, comments, and interactions, all to keep you engaged as the client. And they don’t just sit on this goldmine of data, they monetize it.

Now, here’s where it gets interesting. All that data? It’s used to create little echo chambers for you. You click, they cash in, or even code their way into influencing your behavior. The products and content they push at you are all based on what you’ve done before. And the more you engage, the more they reinforce your preferences, your beliefs, your biases, leading to polarized consumer preferences and beliefs. It’s a money dream come true for advertisers—and it turns out, for politicians too. Therefore, it's no surprise that these platforms have become the most profitable and rapidly growing companies of the century, infinitely scalable by their digital nature.

Enter Cambridge Analytica, 2018⁴. This wasn’t just a “someone sold your email address to a spammer” kind of scandal. No, this was the granddaddy of all data breaches. Over 50 million Facebook profiles were harvested without consent, and the data was used to influence political elections. Yep, your personality profile and browsing history might have played a role in Trump’s 2016 election win and Brexit. That’s democracy for you—shaped by the highest bidder and some sketchy algorithms polarizing opinions because that's just how they function, all while violating your privacy rights.

Even though the fallout from Cambridge Analytica was huge—lawsuits, regulatory fines, the works—companies like Facebook mostly shrugged. Why? Because paying fines is a small price to keep the money machine going. Implementing privacy measures that would actually protect or allow you to regain control of your data? Not as profitable.

Abuses in monetary & financial institutions

So, money—kind of a big deal, right? Isn’t it the most powerful form of property? If you can regulate, distribute, or manage it for others, you’re holding the keys to the entire economy. Why? Because money isn’t just one of those things you use for convenience; it’s literally half weight of every exchange transaction, as discussed in Money: the Efficient Exchange Facilitator. You want groceries? Money. Rent? Money. Need a boatload of cash to buy up all those junk bonds you’ve been eyeing? Yep, money again. Those who control money control, well, everything. And guess who that is? Central banks regulate the game, influencing how much your money is worth today, tomorrow, and 50 years from now, while the banking system pockets the profits from distributing currency, with all the stakes in its issuance and contraction.

For context, in August 1971, when the U.S. decided that gold-backed currency was too cumbersome and abandoned Bretton Woods, central banks gained full discretionary control over regulating the money supply—no more checks and balances or the constraints that come with the right to redeem for gold, you lost that right! And how’s that worked out for us? Not great, if you’re measuring by purchasing power⁵. Take the Swiss Franc, the least-bad fiat currency around, but even it has lost 66.4% of its purchasing power from 1971 to April 2024 (an annualized 2.05% decline). The U.S. Dollar? Down a whopping 87% (3.8% annualized). Unless your income has nearly tripled (x2.98) in Switzerland or risen 7.7 times in the U.S., and you’ve done something with your wealth savings to play catch-up, you’re living with less purchasing power today. And for countries like Venezuela, well, their currency has essentially evaporated. 99.99% gone⁶. Poof.

Fiat currency is pretty much a rigged game where central authorities get to hand out the prizes, and—spoiler alert—it’s not exactly socially fair. A few control the distribution, picking winners in their allocation and losers, while pocketing profits from their power to play with its issuance and contraction mechanisms. Meanwhile, the rest of us—especially those most socially vulnerable or lower on the economic ladder—are left struggling as inflation and policy decisions slowly erode our purchasing power. It's like running uphill on a treadmill someone else is controlling.

So, let’s be honest, this is a straight-up assault on people’s basic right to economic or financial security. Inflation quietly siphons money out of their pockets, eroding their right to build capital, leaving them unable to do the one thing money is supposed to do: cover their needs.

Speaking of which, let’s talk government fiscal discipline, or, you know, the lack thereof. Governments love to spend money (the common property funds), and occasionally they’re a little too loose with public funds. A prime example? The CARES Act during COVID-19. Designed to help American workers and small businesses, it also helped about $9 billion in fraud slip through the cracks. Nice. The IRS⁷ ended up indicting 29,795 people over this, with 373 receiving an average federal prison sentence of 34 months, but the damage was done.

But wait, it’s not just governments—banks also get in on the action. Remember the 2008 financial crisis? Major banks were rolling in profits from their fancy mortgage-backed securities and other risky structured products, all mainly tied to mortgages. And when those assets bubble burst, what did they do? They turned to the central banks, who swooped in to buy up all that toxic waste to prevent a cascading collapse and injecting liquid reserves in the bailout process. Meanwhile, nearly 10 million⁸ Americans lost their homes posted as collateral. Banks privatized the profits, but when things went sideways, losses were socialized.
Moral hazard, meet the real world.

And if you think banks learned their lesson, let me introduce you to the Wells Fargo scandal, circa 2016⁹. Over 3.5 million unauthorized accounts were created so employees could hit their sales targets and collect fees from unsuspecting customers. Yes, no joke! As banking works today, customers not only lacked control but didn’t even have the right to freely manage their accounts—they were charged over $100 million in fees for accounts they didn’t even open. It violated the customers' right to freely manage their property (money) and their right to income from it, as purchasing power was siphoned away through hidden fees. It's like being billed for a gym membership to a gym you’ve never heard of, except it’s your bank and your money savings.

So, yeah, there are plenty of reasons to be a little skeptical of the institutions that manage our money. Central banks, governments, and even the most “reliable” bank or financial institution have all crossed red lines in the past.

The truth is, the power to control property rights over money is, fundamentally, the power to control exchange in society—an inescapable feature of the monetary economies we live in and a deeply ingrained necessity of our human interdependence. If you regulate its supply, set its purchasing power, or manage how it flows through the economy, you’re sitting in the driver’s seat. And everyone else? They’re just along for the ride.

Abuses in Property Rights of Various Assets

So, you think you own the stuff you buy, right? Cute. Turns out, even the simplest day to day transactions—like buying groceries, a phone or some baby formula—come with strings attached, and the strings are usually pulled by the retailer or service provider. The problem isn’t just that you pay for stuff and expect it to work; it’s that companies have found all sorts of clever ways to mess with your property rights. Whether it’s tampering with warranties, selling expired products, or lying about what’s in the box, you’re not always getting what you thought you paid for. And good luck challenging any of it when you don’t even control the records that prove what’s yours.

Take warranty rights, for example. Back in 2017, Apple¹⁰—famously a bit of a control freak when it came to its products—found itself in hot water in Australia. Why? Because they refused to repair or replace iPhones and iPads that had been serviced by third-party repair shops. The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) said, “Hold on, that’s not how Australian Consumer Law works”. Turns out, consumers have the right to a repair or replacement even if their device has been through an unauthorized repair shop. Apple wasn’t too keen on that, though, effectively denying customers their legal rights embedded in their purchase contract. So, that whole “You own and control the rights of your device” thing? Yeah, not so much. This case highlights the infringement of the right to guarantee and receive promised services, as consumers were denied their lawful entitlements.

And then there’s the more everyday stuff, like what happened at Save Mart Supermarkets in 2024¹¹. Save Mart was fined $1.6 million for selling expired over-the-counter meds, baby food, and infant formula across its 194 stores in California. You know, the essentials you don’t really want to gamble with. Selling expired products doesn’t just violate a basic right to safety—it also undermines the right to know what the heck you’re actually buying. Consumers thought they were getting something safe, but instead, they were picking up health risks disguised as groceries. And what’s a consumer supposed to do? Without any real way to verify product information themselves, they’re stuck trusting the retailer who controls the records, who, as we’ve seen, doesn’t always have their best interests at heart.

These examples make it pretty clear that we need to rethink how property rights work in retail, even for the most mundane things like groceries or gadgets. The digitalization of product records should, in theory, help with transparency and trust, but right now, it’s mostly helping companies exert more control. If we don’t create better systems for managing these rights, consumers will keep getting the short end of the stick. And at some point, we might start asking: Do we really own anything at all in a safe and trusted way?

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The only gateway to self-sovereignty & freedom

So, here we are, living in a world where everything’s property rights are going digital, which is great—efficiency, progress, all that good stuff. But it also means that control over records—whether it’s your money, identity, or the things you buy—is more centralized than ever, and easier to do so in ways that were previously impossible. Turns out, when a few big players control everything, the potential for abuse skyrockets. Shocking, right?

But here’s the twist: there’s a way out. In 2009, Satoshi Nakamoto introduced Bitcoin as one of the greatest innovations of the century for the common good—a permissionless, distributed network securing a neutral base asset for the world: bitcoin. But it’s the advancements on Nakamoto’s foundation that solve his own puzzle. Remember Satoshi's line: “I don't know a way for software to know the real world value of things”? On Bitcoin’s foundation, we can build programmable, open, permissionless distributed ledgers to tokenize money, identity, and all types of assets, enabling full agency over transactions and trustlessly determining “the value of anything”. It's the missing step toward self-sovereignty, where your own identity and property rights aren't subject to the whims of some faceless entity's proprietary database but are instead recorded in a distributed database that you can control or delegate control over, as you choose.

But what does tokenization mean? It’s like converting all the registry paperwork, standardized attributes, rights, and any conditions or logic of a property asset—whether transferable or non-transferable, like the case of identity credentials—into a digital token secured on a public, permissionless distributed ledger that only the rightful owner can control and no one can tamper with. Basically, digitally recording the ownership of an asset on a shared distributed ledger.

Picture this: you tokenize the property rights¹² to any asset—physical or digital—whether it’s the car you, General Motors, manufactured, the bag of chips you, Walmart, have on the shelf, or the second-hand sweater you, an ordinary citizen, want to sell in a Web3 marketplace. Or maybe you’re on the receiving end, claiming tokenized assets being transferred to you.

Instead of relying on fragmented paper records or databases controlled by gatekeepers for almost everything today—like the government for your official identity and property records on rights to valuable possessions, the bank for your money, Tesco for your soon-to-expire vegetables, or Google for your data files and search history—well, you know how that goes: they hold the power and can abuse it with the click of a button. This token, by contrast, represents the asset itself, complete with all its metadata and ownership conditions, forming the foundation for a tokenized Web of Ownership Economies. The more we adopt this model, the more agency we reclaim over our lives.

P.S.: In future chapters, we’ll dive deeper into why, in the monetary economies we live in, it’s crucial not just to uphold property rights for lasting economic stability but also to ensure the right to hold a balanced, non-debasable currency that actually retains its purchasing power. Yeah, I know, pretty much impossible in the current fiat system.

It’s the “Self-Sovereignty Cycle”:
Being able to control your Tokenized Property Rights, natively represented on-chain, fuels your freedom, while free exchange through self-sovereign currency thrives on these Tokenized Property Rights.

Here’s the bottom line: we’ve hit the point where there’s no excuse not to do this. We have the technology to create a decentralized, open system that lets you manage your ownership rights—whether it’s your private property or shared assets in your community. It’s time to tokenize property rights across the board and make self-custody of what is yours a fundamental right. The chain is more than just a fancy ledger—it’s the backbone of a future where ownership is clear, secure, and unchangeable, free from power abuses.

The chain, the decentralized ledger, should be the neutral settlement layer as a global public good for every property right you can imagine. Whether it’s your house, your phone, the items in your shopping cart, or a service hour for a massage, it belongs on-chain. Anything recorded off-chain in fragmented databases is essentially a point of failure waiting to happen—vulnerable to fraud, access freezes, alterations, or unauthorized transfers.

When ownership rights and transfers are recorded on a verifiable public good, much of the need for legal property rights enforcement disappears, and the ledger’s checks and balances not only deter future abuses of power but make some outright impossible.

So the choice is clear: do we let centralized powers continue to dictate the terms of our digital future, or do we use this moment to reclaim our sovereignty? By embracing decentralized tokenization through these systems, we can create a future where our rights are safeguarded, our assets with or without represented data truly belong to us, and our communities thrive on cooperation and trust. This paves the way for these social advancements in this new paradigm:

1. Enhance our agency and control over our rights to ourselves and our resources.

2. Improve the institutions and governance models at the heart of our society to make them more inclusive and provide equal opportunities for all.

3. Create efficiencies in how we coordinate, market and regulate these property rights, respecting both the sphere of private property and the realm of the commons.

The stakes couldn’t be higher. Our sovereignty, our freedom, depends on this. If we take control of our property rights now, we’ll be securing not just our individual futures, but the future of society itself. This is our shot to move toward a fairer world with equal opportunities for everyone built on trust-based relationships.

1. Res mancipi was the category of property in Roman law that required a formal process called “mancipatio” for its transfer. These properties included land, houses, slaves, and certain types of livestock, which were considered crucial for the agricultural economy of early Rome. The formal transfer process was designed to ensure clear and public ownership records.

2. "Aadhaar Data Leak: What We Know and Don’t Know About Breach." India Today, 1 Nov. 2023, indiatoday.in/india/story/aadhaar-data-leak-what-we-know-and-dont-know-about-breach-2456474-2023-11-01

3. "Equifax Data Breach Settlement." Federal Trade Commission, ftc.gov/enforcement/refunds/equifax-data-breach-settlement

4. Cadwalladr, Carole, and Graham-Harrison, Emma. "Revealed: 50 million Facebook profiles harvested for Cambridge Analytica in major data breach." The Guardian, 17 Mar. 2018, theguardian.com/news/2018/mar/17/cambridge-analytica-facebook-influence-us-election

5. FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, "Consumer Price Indexes"; fred.stlouisfed.org/categories/32266

6. “Venezuela Inflation Calculator: VEF from 1980 to 2021.” Official Inflation Data, Alioth Finance, officialdata.org/Venezuela-inflation

7. IRS Criminal Investigation. "IRS Criminal Investigation Releases Updated COVID Fraud Statistics on 4th Anniversary of CARES Act; Nearly $9 Billion Investigated." Internal Revenue Service, [March 28, 2024]. irs.gov/newsroom/irs-criminal-investigation-releases-updated-covid-fraud-statistics-on-4th-anniversary-of-cares-act-nearly-9-billion-investigated

8. Marketplace Staff. "Divided Decade: How the Financial Crisis Changed Housing." Marketplace, December 17, 2018. marketplace.org/2018/12/17/what-we-learned-housing/

9. "Attorney General Shapiro Announces $575 Million, 50-State Settlement with Wells Fargo Bank for Opening Unauthorized Accounts and Charging Consumers for Unnecessary Auto Insurance, Mortgage Fees." Pennsylvania Office of Attorney General, 28 Dec. 2018, attorneygeneral.gov/taking-action/attorney-general-shapiro-announces-575-million-50-state-settlement-with-wells-fargo-bank-for-opening-unauthorized-accounts-and-charging-consumers-for-unnecessary-auto-insurance-mortgage-fees/
U.S. Department of Justice. "Wells Fargo Agrees to Pay $3 Billion to Resolve Criminal and Civil Investigations into Sales Practices Involving Millions of Accounts." Justice.gov, 21 Feb. 2020, justice.gov/opa/pr/wells-fargo-agrees-pay-3-billion-resolve-criminal-and-civil-investigations-sales-practices

10. Australian Competition and Consumer Commission. "ACCC Takes Action Against Apple Over Alleged Misleading Consumer Guarantee Representations." ACCC, 2017. accc.gov.au/media-release/accc-takes-action-against-apple-over-alleged-misleading-consumer-guarantee-representations

11. Tanaka, Eric. "Save Mart Supermarkets Fined $1.6 Million for Selling Expired Meds and Baby Snacks in California." Hoodline, 1 June 2024, hoodline.com/2024/06/save-mart-supermarkets-fined-1-6-million-for-selling-expired-meds-and-baby-snacks-in-california/

12. Szabo, N. (1998). Secure property titles with owner authority.